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Homestead Act
Homestead Act of 1862
Homestead Act of 1862
Homesteaders and Homesteading
Homestead Act of 1862
Overview
Passed on May 20, 1862, the Homestead
Act accelerated the settlement of the western territory by granting adult heads of families 160 acres of surveyed public land
for a minimal filing fee and 5 years of continuous residence on that land.
The Homestead Act of 1862 is recognized
as one of the most revolutionary concepts for distributing public land in American history.
Repercussions of this monumental piece of legislation can be detected throughout America today, decades after the cry of "Free Land!" has faded away. After being amended
many times over the years, the Homestead Act was repealed on October 21, 1976, but the date for homesteading public lands
in Alaska was extended until October 21, 1986.
Over the course of the Homestead
Act, the government distributed more than 270 million acres of land to homesteaders. Thirty
of the 50 states had homesteads in them at one time or another, including such geographically diverse areas as Florida, Iowa, the Dakotas, New Mexico,
Washington, California, and Alaska. Approximately 1.6 million homesteaders (about 40 percent) "proved up" on their lands
by fulfilling all requirements and taking title from the government. Millions of people
of different ethnic origins, ages, and backgrounds took advantage of homesteading, hoping to use the Act to help them fulfill
their own personal visions of the American Dream of land and home ownership. An
estimated 93 million homesteader descendants inhabit the modern world.
What was the Homestead
Act?
The Homestead Act of 1862
has been called one the most important pieces of Legislation in the history of the United States. Signed into law in 1862 by Abraham Lincoln after the secession of
southern states, this Act turned over vast amounts of the public domain to private citizens. 270 millions acres, or 10% of
the area of the United States, was claimed
and settled under this act.
The Homestead Act of 1862 was
one of the most significant and enduring events in the westward expansion of the United States. By granting 160 acres of free land to claimants, it allowed nearly
any man or woman a "fair chance." Homestead National Monument of America, located in Southeast Nebraska,
commemorates this Act and the far-reaching effects it had upon the landscape and people.
A homesteader had only to be the
head of a household and at least 21 years of age to claim a 160 acre parcel of land. Settlers from all walks of life including
newly arrived immigrants, farmers without land of their own from the East, single women and former slaves came to meet the
challenge of "proving up" and keeping this "free land". Each homesteader had to live on the land, build a home, make improvements,
and farm for 5 years before they were eligible to "prove up". A total filing fee of $18 was the only money required, but sacrifice
and hard work exacted a different price from the hopeful settlers.
“I've long believed that one of the mainsprings of our own liberty has been the widespread
ownership of property among our people and the expectation that anyone's child, even from the humblest of families, could
grow up to own a business or a corporation. Thomas Jefferson dreamed of a land of small farmers, of shopowners, and merchants.
Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Homestead Act that ensured that the great western prairies of America would be the realm
of independent, propertyowning citizens—a mightier guarantee of freedom is difficult to imagine.” – Ronald
Reagan, August 3, 1987
| Homestead Act Map |
|
(About) This map shows the states that participated in the Homestead Act -- an Act that had reigned
from the initial signature of President Abraham Lincoln in 1862 and ceased to exist during the administration of President
Ronald Reagan in 1986.
Recommended
Viewing: Lewis & Clark - The Journey
of the Corps of Discovery (1997) (DVD) (240
minutes) (PBS) (September 28, 2004). Review: Another reliably well-crafted, generally engrossing documentary from Ken Burns,
Lewis & Clark employs the director's now-familiar approach to his subjects, from its elegant juxtaposition of period illustrations
and portraits against newly filmed footage of historic sites to Burns's repertory of accomplished actors to provide gravitas
for quotes from the key figures. Granted the formula has become familiar enough to allow parody, but Burns knows how to invest
his historical investigations with movement and drama, making this four-hour journey a worthwhile trip. Continued below…
As narrated
by Hal Holbrook, Dayton Duncan's script explicates the agenda presented by Thomas Jefferson to Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark, placing it in the context of the young country's gamble in Jefferson's Louisiana Purchase, and the
expedition's goals for opening the West. While preserving the heroic scale of the undertaking, Burns also finds time to delve
into the politics of the venture and the disparate personalities of the two explorers; in particular, Duncan and Burns look
at the career of Lewis, the presidential protégé, his moody demeanor, and his untimely death. The film also looks beyond its
titular leaders to examine the personalities of their corps of soldiers, their boatmen, and the Indians they met and depended
on, most notably their female Shosone guide, Sacagawea. --Sam Sutherland
Homestead Act Limitations
and Results
The Homestead Act, enacted
during the Civil War in 1862, provided that any adult citizen, or intended citizen, who had never borne arms against the U.S.
government could claim 160 acres of surveyed government land. Claimants were required to “improve” the plot by
building a dwelling and cultivating the land. After 5 years on the land, the original filer was entitled to the property,
free and clear, except for a small registration fee. Title could also be acquired after only a 6-month residency and trivial
improvements, provided the claimant paid the government $1.25 per acre. After the Civil War, Union soldiers could deduct the
time they had served from the residency requirements.
Although this act was included
in the Republican Party platform of 1860, support for the idea began decades earlier. Even under the Articles of Confederation,
before 1787, the distribution of government lands generated much interest and discussion.
The act, however, proved to be
no panacea for poverty. Comparatively few laborers and farmers could afford to build a farm or acquire the necessary tools,
seed, and livestock. In the end, most of those who purchased land under the act came from areas quite close to their new homesteads
(Iowans moved to Nebraska, Minnesotans to South
Dakota, and so on). Unfortunately, the act was framed so ambiguously that it seemed to invite fraud,
and early modifications by Congress only compounded the problem. Most of the land went to speculators, cattlemen, miners,
lumbermen, and railroads. Of some 500 million acres dispersed by the General Land Office between 1862 and 1904, only 80 million
acres went to homesteaders. Indeed, small farmers acquired more land under the Homestead Act in the 20th century than in the
19th.
Homestead Act Filing
Process
People
interested in Homesteading first had to file their intentions at the nearest Land Office. A brief check for previous ownership
claims was made for the plot of land in question, usually described by its survey coordinates. The prospective homesteader
paid a filing fee of $10 to claim the land temporarily, as well as a $2 commission to the land agent.
With application and receipt
in hand, the homesteader then returned to the land to begin the process of building a home and farming the land, both requirements
for "proving" up at the end of five years. When all requirements had been completed and the homesteader was ready the take
legal possession, the homesteader found two neighbors or friends willing to vouch for the truth of his or her statements about
the land's improvements and sign the "proof" document.
After successful completion
of this final form and payment of a $6 fee, the homesteader received the patent for the land, signed with the name of the
current President of the United States.
This paper was often proudly displayed on a cabin wall and represented the culmination of hard work and determination.
The Homestead Act remained
in effect until it was repealed in 1976, with provisions for homesteading in Alaska
until 1986. Alaska was one of the last places in the country
where homesteading remained a viable option into the latter part of the 1900s. The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 substantially
decreased the amount of land available to homesteaders in the West. Because much of the prime land had been homesteaded decades
earlier, successful Homestead claims dropped sharply after
this time.
On March 16, 1936 Congress passed
Public Law 480 of the 74th Congress created a new unit in the National Park System on the site of the Daniel Freeman homestead.
On March 19, 1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the law and Homestead National Monument of America "as an appropriate
monument to retain for posterity a proper memorial emblematical of the hardships and the pioneer life through which the early
settlers passed in the settlement, cultivation and civilization of the Great West."
Homesteading by
the Numbers and Interesting Facts
Compiled by Homestead National Monument of America Historian Todd Arrington, April 24, 2007
1: Number of National Park
Service sites dedicated to the commemoration and interpretation of the Homestead Act of 1862 and the many changes it initiated
in the United States and the world.
10: Percentage of U.S. land given away under the Homestead Act.
24: Presidential administrations
during which the Homestead Act was in effect (Lincoln to Reagan).
30: Number of states in
which homestead lands were located.
40: Percentage of homesteaders
that “proved up” on their claims and earned the deed from the federal government.
45: Percentage of Nebraska’s acres distributed under the Homestead Act [Largest
percentage of any state].
123: Years the Homestead
Act was in effect (1863-1986).
160: Number of acres in
a typical homestead claim.
2,000,000: Number of claims
made under the Homestead Act.
11,000,000: Acres claimed
in 1913, the peak year of homestead claims.
93,000,000: Estimated number
of homesteader descendants alive today.
270,000,000: Total number of acres
distributed by the Homestead Act.
Total Homesteads
in State by State and Descending Order
Montana (151,600 homesteads):
Total acreage: 93,155,840
Total homestead acreage:
32,050,480
Total percentage: 34%
North Dakota (118,472 homesteads):
Total acreage: 44,156,160
Total homestead acreage:
17,417,466
Total percentage: 39%
Colorado (107,618 homesteads):
Total acreage: 66,386,560
Total homestead acreage:
22,146,400
Total percentage: 33%
Nebraska (104,260 homesteads):
Total acreage: 49,201,920
Total homestead acreage:
22,253,314
Total percentage: 45%
Oklahoma (99,557 homesteads):
Total acreage: 43,954,560
Total homestead acreage:
14,865,912
Total percentage: 34%
South Dakota (97,197 homesteads):
Total acreage: 48,573,440
Total homestead acreage:
15,660,000
Total percentage: 32%
Kansas (89,945 homesteads):
Total acreage: 52,366,720
Total homestead acreage:
13,089,258
Total percentage: 25%
New Mexico (87,312 homesteads):
Total acreage: 77,672,960
Total homestead acreage:
19,422,958
Total percentage: 25%
Minnesota (85,072 homesteads):
Total acreage: 50,954,880
Total homestead acreage:
10,389,606
Total percentage: 20%
Arkansas (74,620 homesteads):
Total acreage: 33,328,000
Total homestead acreage:
8,133,791
Total percentage: 24%
Wyoming (67,315 homesteads):
Total acreage: 62,147,200
Total homestead acreage:
18,225,327
Total percentage: 29%
California (66,738 homesteads):
Total acreage: 99,822,720
Total homestead acreage:
10,476,665
Total percentage: 10%
Oregon (62,926 homesteads):
Total acreage: 61,441,280
Total homestead acreage:
10,513,945
Total percentage: 17%
Idaho (60,221 homesteads):
Total acreage: 52,960,640
Total homestead acreage:
9,733,455
Total percentage: 18%
Washington (58,156 homesteads):
Total acreage: 42,611,840
Total homestead acreage:
8,465,002
Total percentage: 20%
Alabama (41,819 homesteads):
Total acreage: 32,480,000
Total homestead acreage:
4,578,323
Total percentage: 14%
Missouri (34,633 homesteads):
Total acreage: 44,094,720
Total homestead acreage:
3,644,306
Total percentage: 8%
Dakota
Territory (33,951 homesteads):
Total acreage: 92,729,600
Total homestead acreage:
5,244,345
Total percentage: 6%
(Dakota Territory was the
cumulative land area of North and South Dakota prior to
their splitting into two different territories in 1889. North and South Dakota
both acquired statehood on November 2, 1889.)
Wisconsin (29,246 homesteads):
Total acreage: 34,760,960
Total homestead acreage:
3,110,990
Total percentage: 9%
Florida (28,096 homesteads):
Total acreage: 34,519,680
Total homestead acreage:
3,326,712
Total percentage: 10%
Mississippi (24,126 homesteads):
Total acreage: 30,024,960
Total homestead acreage:
2,637,412
Total percentage: 9%
Louisiana (22,988 homesteads):
Total acreage: 27,882,240
Total homestead acreage:
2,561,334
Total percentage: 9%
Arizona (20,268 homesteads):
Total acreage: 72,730,880
Total homestead acreage:
4,134,356
Total percentage: 6%
Michigan (19,861 homesteads):
Total acreage: 36,357,760
Total homestead acreage:
2,321,937
Total percentage: 6%
Utah (16,798 homesteads):
Total acreage: 52,587,520
Total homestead acreage:
3,607,688
Total percentage: 7%
Iowa (8,851 homesteads):
Total acreage: 35,760,000
Total homestead acreage:
903,164
Total percentage: 3%
Nevada (4,370 homesteads):
Total acreage: 70,275,840
Total homestead acreage:
704,167
Total percentage: 1%
Alaska (3,277 homesteads):
Total acreage: 365,039,104
Total homestead acreage:
363,775
Total percentage: less than
1%
Ohio (108 homesteads):
Total acreage: 26,209,920
Total homestead acreage:
7,707
Total percentage: less than
1%
Illinois (74 homesteads):
Total acreage: 35,579,520
Total homestead acreage:
5,667
Total percentage: less than
1%
Indiana (30 homesteads):
Total acreage: 22,956,800
Total homestead acreage:
1,785
Total percentage: less than 1%
Homestead Act of 1862
Transcript
37th Congress Session II 1862
Chapter LXXV. - An Act to secure
Homesteads to actual Settlers on the Public Domain.
Be it enacted by the Senate
and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That any person who is the head of a family,
or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have filed his declaration
of intention to become such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United States, and who has never borne arms against
the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, shall, from and after the first January, eighteen hundred
and. sixty-three, be entitled to enter one quarter section or a less quantity of unappropriated public lands, upon which said
person may have filed a preemption claim, or which may, at the time the application is made, be subject to preemption at one
dollar and twenty-five cents, or less, per acre; or eighty acres or less of such unappropriated lands, at two dollars and
fifty cents per acre, to be located in a body, in conformity to the legal subdivisions of the public lands, and after the
same shall have been surveyed: Provided, That any person owning and residing on land may, under the provisions of this act,
enter other land lying contiguous to his or her said land, which shall not, with the land so already owned and occupied, exceed
in the aggregate one hundred and sixty acres.
SEC. 2. And be it further
enacted, That the person applying for the benefit of this act shall, upon application to the register of the land office in
which he or she is about to make such entry, make affidavit before the said register or receiver that he or she is the head
of a family, or is twenty-one years or more of age, or shall have performed service in the army or navy of the United States,
and that he has never borne arms against the Government of the United States or given aid and comfort to its enemies, and
that such application is made for his or her exclusive use and benefit, and that said entry is made for the purpose of actual
settlement and cultivation, and not either directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person or persons whomsoever;
and upon filing the said affidavit with the register or receiver, and on payment of ten dollars, he or she shall thereupon
be permitted to enter the quantity of land specified: Provided, however, That no certificate shall be given or patent issued
therefor until the expiration of five years from the date of such entry ; and if, at the expiration of such time, or at any
time within two years thereafter, the person making such entry ; or, if he be dead, his widow; or in case of her death, his
heirs or devisee; or in case of a widow making such entry, her heirs or devisee, in case of her death ; shall. prove by two
credible witnesses that he, she, or they have resided upon or cultivated the same for the term of five years immediately succeeding
the time of filing the affidavit aforesaid, and shall make affidavit that no part of said land has been alienated, and that
he has borne rue allegiance to the Government of the United States ; then, in such case, he, she, or they, if at that time
a citizen of the United States, shall be entitled to a patent, as in other cases provided for by law: And provided, further,
That in case of the death of both father and mother, leaving an Infant child, or children, under twenty-one years of age,
the right and fee shall ensure to the benefit of said infant child or children ; and the executor, administrator, or guardian
may, at any time within two years after the death of the surviving parent, and in accordance with the laws of the State in
which such children for the time being have their domicil, sell said land for the benefit of said infants, but for no other
purpose; and the purchaser shall acquire the absolute title by the purchase, and be en- titled to a patent from the United
States, on payment of the office fees and sum of money herein specified.
SEC. 3. And be it further
enacted, That the register of the land office shall note all such applications on the tract books and plats of, his office,
and keep a register of all such entries, and make return thereof to the General Land Office, together with the proof upon
which they have been founded.
SEC. 4. And be it further
enacted, That no lands acquired under the provisions of this act shall in any event become liable to the satisfaction of any
debt or debts contracted prior to the issuing of the patent therefor.
SEC. 5. And be it further
enacted, That if, at any time after the filing of the affidavit, as required in the second section of this act, and before
the expiration of the five years aforesaid, it shall be proven, after due notice to the settler, to the satisfaction of the
register of the land office, that the person having filed such affidavit shall have actually changed his or her residence,
or abandoned the said land for more than six months at any time, then and in that event the land so entered shall revert to
the government.
SEC. 6. And be it further
enacted, That no individual shall be permit- ted to acquire title to more than one quarter section under the provisions of
this act; and that the Commissioner of the General Land Office is hereby required to prepare and issue such rules and regulations,
consistent with this act, as shall be necessary and proper to carry its provisions into effect; and that the registers and
receivers of the several land offices shall be entitled to receive the same compensation for any lands entered under the provisions
of this act that they are now entitled to receive when the same quantity of land is entered with money, one half to be paid
by the person making the application at the time of so doing, and the other half on the issue of the certificate by the person
to whom it may be issued; but this shall not be construed to enlarge the maximum of compensation now prescribed by law for
any register or receiver: Provided, That nothing contained in this act shall be so construed as to impair or interfere in
any manner whatever with existing preemption rights : And provided, further, That all persons who may have filed their applications
for a preemption right prior to the passage of this act, shall be entitled to all privileges of this act: Provided, further,
That no person who has served, or may hereafter serve, for a period of not less than fourteen days in the army or navy of
the United States, either regular or volunteer, under the laws thereof, during the existence of an actual war, domestic or
foreign, shall be deprived of the benefits of this act on account of not having attained the age of twenty-one years.
SEC. 7. And be it further
enacted, That the fifth section of the act en- titled" An act in addition to an act more effectually to provide for the punishment
of certain crimes against the United States, and for other purposes," approved the third of March, in the year eighteen hundred
and fifty-seven, shall extend to all oaths, affirmations, and affidavits, required or authorized by this act.
SEC. 8. And be it further
enacted, That nothing in this act shall be 80 construed as to prevent any person who has availed him or herself of the benefits
of the fir8t section of this act, from paying the minimum price, or the price to which the same may have graduated, for the
quantity of land so entered at any time before the expiration of the five years, and obtaining a patent therefor from the
government, as in other cases provided by law, on making proof of settlement and cultivation as provided by existing laws
granting preemption rights.
APPROVED, May 20, 1862.
Sources listed at bottom of page.
Recommended Reading: Seizing
Destiny: The Relentless Expansion of American Territory. From Publishers Weekly: In an admirable and important addition to his distinguished oeuvre, Pulitzer Prize–winner
Kluger (Ashes to Ashes, a history of the tobacco wars) focuses on the darker side of America's rapid expansion westward. He
begins with European settlement of the so-called New World, explaining that Britain's
successful colonization depended not so much on conquest of or friendship with the Indians, but on encouraging emigration.
Kluger then fruitfully situates the American Revolution as part of the story of expansion: the Founding Fathers based their
bid for independence on assertions about the expanse of American virgin earth and after the war that very land became the
new country's main economic resource. Continued below...
The heart of
the book, not surprisingly, covers the 19th century, lingering in detail over such well-known episodes as the Louisiana Purchase
and William Seward's acquisition of Alaska. The final chapter looks at expansion in the 20th century. Kluger
provocatively suggests that, compared with western European powers, the United States
engaged in relatively little global colonization, because the closing of the western frontier sated America's expansionist hunger. Each chapter of this long, absorbing book is rewarding
as Kluger meets the high standard set by his earlier work. Includes 10 detailed maps.
Recommended Viewing: 500 Nations (372 minutes). Description:
500 Nations is an eight-part documentary (more than 6 hours and that's not including its interactive CD-ROM filled with extra
features) that explores the history of the indigenous peoples of North and Central America, from pre-Colombian times
through the period of European contact and colonization, to the end of the 19th century and the subjugation of the Plains
Indians of North America. 500 Nations utilizes historical texts, eyewitness
accounts, pictorial sources and computer graphic reconstructions to explore the magnificent civilizations which flourished
prior to contact with Western civilization, and to tell the dramatic and tragic story of the Native American nations' desperate
attempts to retain their way of life against overwhelming odds. Continued below...
Mention the
word "Indian," and most will conjure up images inspired by myths and movies: teepees, headdresses, and war paint; Sitting
Bull, Geronimo, Crazy Horse, and their battles (like Little Big Horn) with the U.S. Cavalry. Those stories of the so-called
"horse nations" of the Great
Plains are all here, but so is a great deal more. Using impressive computer imaging, photos, location film footage
and breathtaking cinematography, interviews with present-day Indians, books and manuscripts, museum artifacts, and more, Leustig
and his crew go back more than a millennium to present an fascinating account of Indians, including those (like the Maya and
Aztecs in Mexico and the Anasazi in the Southwest) who were here long before white men ever reached these shores. It was the
arrival of Europeans like Columbus, Cortez, and DeSoto that marked the beginning of the end for the Indians. Considering the
participation of host Kevin Costner, whose film Dances with Wolves was highly sympathetic to the Indians, it's no bulletin
that 500 Nations also takes a compassionate view of the multitude of calamities--from alcohol and disease to the corruption
of their culture and the depletion of their vast natural resources--visited on them by the white man in his quest for land
and money, eventually leading to such horrific events as the Trail of Tears "forced march," the massacre at Wounded Knee,
and other consequences of the effort to "relocate" Indians to the reservations where many of them still live. Along the way,
we learn about the Indians' participation in such events as the American Revolution and the War of 1812, as well as popular
legends like the first Thanksgiving (it really happened) and the rescue of Captain John Smith by Pocahontas (it probably didn't).
Recommended Reading: The Impending Crisis, 1848-1861 (Paperback), by David M. Potter. Review: Professor Potter treats an incredibly complicated and misinterpreted time period
with unparalleled objectivity and insight. Potter masterfully explains the climatic events that led to Southern secession
– a greatly divided nation – and the Civil War: the social, political and ideological conflicts; culture;
American expansionism, sectionalism and popular sovereignty; economic and tariff systems; and slavery. In other words, Potter places under the microscope the root causes and origins of the Civil War. He conveys
the subjects in easy to understand language to edify the reader's understanding (it's not like reading some dry
old history book). Delving beyond surface meanings and interpretations, this
book analyzes not only the history, but the historiography of the time period as well. Continued below…
Professor Potter rejects the historian's tendency to
review the period with all the benefits of hindsight. He simply traces the events, allowing the reader a step-by-step walk
through time, the various views, and contemplates the interpretations of contemporaries and other historians. Potter then
moves forward with his analysis. The Impending Crisis is the absolute gold-standard of historical writing… This simply
is the book by which, not only other antebellum era books, but all history books should be judged.
Recommended Reading: A House Divided: Sectionalism and Civil War, 1848-1865 (The American Moment). Reviews: "The best short treatment of the sectional conflict and Civil War
available... Sewell convincingly demonstrates that the conflict was a revolutionary experience that fundamentally transformed
the Republic and its people, and left a racial heritage that still confronts America
today. The result is a poignant discussion of the central tragedy of American history and its legacy for the nation." -- William
E. Gienapp, Georgia Historical Quarterly.
"A provocative starting point for discussion, further study, and independent assessment." -- William H. Pease, History. "Sewell's
style is fast moving and very readable... An excellent volume summarizing the stormy period prior to the war as well as a
look at the military and home fronts." -- Civil War Book Exchange and Collector's Newsletter. Continued below…
"A well-written,
traditional, and brief narrative of the period from the end of the Mexican War to the conclusion of the Civil War... Shows
the value of traditional political history which is too often ignored in our rush to reconstruct the social texture of society."
-- Thomas D. Morris, Civil War History. "Tailored for adoption in college courses. Students will find that the author has
a keen eye for vivid quotations, giving his prose welcome immediacy." -- Daniel W. Crofts, Journal of Southern History.
Recommended
Reading: CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR: The Political, Cultural, Economic and Territorial
Disputes Between the North and South. Description: While South Carolina’s preemptive
strike on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's
subsequent call to arms started the Civil War, South Carolina's secession and Lincoln's military actions were simply the last in a chain of events stretching as far back
as 1619. Increasing moral conflicts and political debates over slavery-exacerbated by the inequities inherent between an established
agricultural society and a growing industrial one-led to a fierce sectionalism which manifested itself through cultural, economic,
political and territorial disputes. Continued below...
This historical study reduces sectionalism to its most fundamental form, examining the underlying source
of this antagonistic climate. From protective tariffs to the expansionist agenda, it illustrates the ways in which the foremost
issues of the time influenced relations between the North and the South.
Recommended
Reading: Manifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire of Right (Critical Issue Book). From Booklist:
In this concise essay, Stephanson explores the religious antecedents to America's
quest to control a continent and then an empire. He interprets the two competing definitions of destiny that sprang from the
Puritans' millenarian view toward the wilderness they settled (and natives they expelled). Here was the God-given chance to
redeem the Christian world, and that sense of a special world-historical role and opportunity has never deserted the American
national self-regard. But would that role be realized in an exemplary fashion, with America
a model for liberty, or through expansionist means to create what Jefferson called "the empire
of liberty"? Continued below…
The antagonism bubbles in two periods Stephanson examines
closely, the 1840s and 1890s. In those times, the journalists, intellectuals, and presidents he quotes wrestled with America's
purpose in fighting each decade's war, which added territory and peoples that somehow had to be reconciled with the predestined
future. …A sophisticated analysis of American exceptionalism for ruminators on the country's purpose in the world.
Recommended Viewing: American Experience - Transcontinental Railroad (2003) (PBS) (120 minutes). Description: Go behind-the-scenes
of one of the greatest engineering feats of the 19th century: the building of a transcontinental railroad across the United
States. Completed in only six years by unscrupulous entrepreneurs, brilliant engineers, and
legions of dedicated workers, the Transcontinental Railroad left a horde of displaced, broken Native Americans in its wake.
See how the railroad helped shape the politics and culture of mid-19th century America.
Recommended Reading: What Hath
God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848
(Oxford History of the United States)
(Hardcover: 928 pages). Review: The newest volume in
the renowned Oxford History of the United States-- A brilliant portrait of an era that saw dramatic transformations in American
life The Oxford History of the United States
is by far the most respected multi-volume history of our nation. The series includes two Pulitzer Prize winners, two New York
Times bestsellers, and winners of the Bancroft and Parkman Prizes. Now, in What Hath God Wrought, historian Daniel Walker
Howe illuminates the period from the battle of New Orleans to the end of the Mexican-American
War, an era when the United States expanded
to the Pacific and won control over the richest part of the North American continent. Continued below…
Howe's panoramic
narrative portrays revolutionary improvements in transportation and communications that accelerated the extension of the American
empire. Railroads, canals, newspapers, and the telegraph dramatically lowered travel times and spurred the spread of information.
These innovations prompted the emergence of mass political parties and stimulated America's economic development from
an overwhelmingly rural country to a diversified economy in which commerce and industry took their place alongside agriculture.
In his story, the author weaves together political and military events with social, economic, and cultural history. He examines
the rise of Andrew Jackson and his Democratic party, but contends that John Quincy Adams and other Whigs--advocates of public
education and economic integration, defenders of the rights of Indians, women, and African-Americans--were the true prophets
of America's future. He reveals the power
of religion to shape many aspects of American life during this period, including slavery and antislavery, women's rights and
other reform movements, politics, education, and literature. Howe's story of American expansion -- Manifest Destiny -- culminates
in the bitterly controversial but brilliantly executed war waged against Mexico
to gain California and Texas for the United States. By 1848, America had been transformed. What Hath God Wrought provides a monumental narrative
of this formative period in United States
history.
Recommended Reading: Manifest
Destiny and Mission in American History (Harvard University Press). Description: "Before this book first appeared in 1963, most historians wrote
as if the continental expansion of the United States
was inevitable. 'What is most impressive,' Henry Steele Commager and Richard Morris declared in 1956, 'is the ease, the simplicity,
and seeming inevitability of the whole process.' The notion of 'inevitability,' however, is perhaps only a secular variation
on the theme of the expansionist editor John L. O'Sullivan, who in 1845 coined one of the most famous phrases in American
history when he wrote of 'our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence
for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.' Continued below...
Frederick Merk rejected inevitability in favor of a more contingent interpretation of American expansionism
in the 1840s. As his student Henry May later recalled, Merk 'loved to get the facts straight.'" --From the Foreword by John Mack Faragher. About the Author: Frederick Merk was Gurney
Professor of American History, Harvard University.
Sources: Homestead National Monument of America;
National Park Service; National Archives and Records Administration; Library of Congress; ourdocuments.gov; Cross, Coy
F. Go West, Young Man!: Horace Greeley's Vision for America.
Albuquerque: University of New
Mexico Press, 1995; Lee, Lawrence Bacon. Kansas and the Homestead Act, 1862-1905. New York:
Arno Press, 1979; Ottoson, Howard W., ed. Land
Use Policy and Problems in the United States.
Edited by Howard W. Ottoson. Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press, 1963; Stephenson, George Malcolm. The Political History
of the Public Lands From 1840 to 1862: From Preemption to Homestead.
New York: Russell & Russell, 1967.
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