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Monroe Doctrine President James Monroe
United States History
[The Monroe Doctrine was articulated in President James Monroe's
seventh annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The European powers, according to Monroe, were obligated to respect
the Western Hemisphere as the United States' sphere of interest. See Manifest Destiny.]
. . At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Government, made through
the minister of the Emperor residing here, a full power and instructions have been transmitted to the minister of the United
States at St. Petersburg to arrange by amicable negotiation the respective rights and interests of the two nations on the
northwest coast of this continent. A similar proposal has been made by His Imperial Majesty to the Government of Great Britain,
which has likewise been acceded to. The Government of the United States has been desirous by this friendly proceeding of manifesting
the great value which they have invariably attached to the friendship of the Emperor and their solicitude to cultivate the
best understanding with his Government. In the discussions to which this interest has given rise and in the arrangements by
which they may terminate the occasion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle in which the rights and interests
of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed
and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. . .
It was stated at the commencement of the last session that a great effort
was then making in Spain and Portugal to improve the condition of the people of those countries, and that it appeared to be
conducted with extraordinary moderation. It need scarcely be remarked that the results have been so far very different from
what was then anticipated. Of events in that quarter of the globe, with which we have so much intercourse and from which we
derive our origin, we have always been anxious and interested spectators. The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments
the most friendly in favor of the liberty and happiness of their fellow-men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the
European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do
so. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense.
With the movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately connected, and by causes which must be obvious
to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political system of the allied powers is essentially different in this respect
from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective Governments; and to the defense
of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most enlightened
citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. We owe it, therefore, to candor
and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt
on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing
colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who
have declared their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles,
acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their
destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United
States. In the war between those new Governments and Spain we declared our neutrality at the time of their recognition, and
to this we have adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no change shall occur which, in the judgement of the competent
authorities of this Government, shall make a corresponding change on the part of the United States indispensable to their
security.
The late events in Spain and Portugal shew that Europe is still unsettled.
Of this important fact no stronger proof can be adduced than that the allied powers should have thought it proper, on any
principle satisfactory to themselves, to have interposed by force in the internal concerns of Spain. To what extent such interposition
may be carried, on the same principle, is a question in which all independent powers whose governments differ from theirs
are interested, even those most remote, and surely none of them more so than the United States. Our policy in regard to Europe,
which was adopted at an early stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless remains
the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government de facto as
the legitimate government for us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a frank, firm,
and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard
to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously different.
It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political system
to any portion of either continent without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe that our southern brethren,
if left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should behold such
interposition in any form with indifference. If we look to the comparative strength and resources of Spain and those new Governments,
and their distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It is still the true policy of the
United States to leave the parties to themselves, in hope that other powers will pursue the same course. . . .
Source: ourdocuments.gov
Recommended Reading: What Hath
God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848
(Oxford History of the United States)
(Hardcover: 928 pages). Review: The newest volume in
the renowned Oxford History of the United States-- A brilliant portrait of an era that saw dramatic transformations in American
life The Oxford History of the United States
is by far the most respected multi-volume history of our nation. The series includes two Pulitzer Prize winners, two New York
Times bestsellers, and winners of the Bancroft and Parkman Prizes. Now, in What Hath God Wrought, historian Daniel Walker
Howe illuminates the period from the battle of New Orleans to the end of the Mexican-American
War, an era when the United States expanded
to the Pacific and won control over the richest part of the North American continent. Continued below...
Howe's panoramic
narrative portrays revolutionary improvements in transportation and communications that accelerated the extension of the American
empire. Railroads, canals, newspapers, and the telegraph dramatically lowered travel times and spurred the spread of information.
These innovations prompted the emergence of mass political parties and stimulated America's economic development from
an overwhelmingly rural country to a diversified economy in which commerce and industry took their place alongside agriculture.
In his story, the author weaves together political and military events with social, economic, and cultural history. He examines
the rise of Andrew Jackson and his Democratic party, but contends that John Quincy Adams and other Whigs--advocates of public
education and economic integration, defenders of the rights of Indians, women, and African-Americans--were the true prophets
of America's future. He reveals the power
of religion to shape many aspects of American life during this period, including slavery and antislavery, women's rights and
other reform movements, politics, education, and literature. Howe's story of American expansion -- Manifest Destiny -- culminates
in the bitterly controversial but brilliantly executed war waged against Mexico
to gain California and Texas for the United States. By 1848, America
had been transformed. What Hath God Wrought provides a monumental narrative of this formative period in United States history.
Recommended Reading: Seizing
Destiny: The Relentless Expansion of American Territory. From Publishers Weekly: In an admirable and important addition to his distinguished oeuvre, Pulitzer Prize–winner
Kluger (Ashes to Ashes, a history of the tobacco wars) focuses on the darker side of America's rapid expansion westward. He
begins with European settlement of the so-called New World, explaining that Britain's
successful colonization depended not so much on conquest of or friendship with the Indians, but on encouraging emigration.
Kluger then fruitfully situates the American Revolution as part of the story of expansion: the Founding Fathers based their
bid for independence on assertions about the expanse of American virgin earth and after the war that very land became the
new country's main economic resource. Continued below...
The heart of
the book, not surprisingly, covers the 19th century, lingering in detail over such well-known episodes as the Louisiana Purchase
and William Seward's acquisition of Alaska. The final chapter looks at expansion in the 20th century. Kluger
provocatively suggests that, compared with western European powers, the United States
engaged in relatively little global colonization, because the closing of the western frontier sated America's expansionist hunger. Each chapter of this long, absorbing book is rewarding
as Kluger meets the high standard set by his earlier work. Includes 10 detailed maps.
Recommended Reading: The Impending Crisis, 1848-1861 (Paperback), by David M. Potter. Review: Professor Potter treats an incredibly complicated and misinterpreted
time period with unparalleled objectivity and insight. Potter masterfully explains the climatic events that led to Southern
secession – a greatly divided nation – and the Civil War: the social, political and ideological conflicts;
culture; American expansionism, sectionalism and popular sovereignty; economic and tariff systems; and slavery. In other words, Potter places under the microscope the root causes and origins of the Civil War.
He conveys the subjects in easy to understand language to edify the reader's understanding (it's
not like reading some dry old history book). Delving beyond surface meanings
and interpretations, this book analyzes not only the history, but the historiography of the time period as well. Continued
below…
Professor Potter
rejects the historian's tendency to review the period with all the benefits of hindsight. He simply traces the events, allowing
the reader a step-by-step walk through time, the various views, and contemplates the interpretations of contemporaries and
other historians. Potter then moves forward with his analysis. The Impending Crisis is the absolute gold-standard of historical
writing… This simply is the book by which, not only other antebellum era books, but all history books should be judged.
Recommended Reading: A People's
History of the United States: 1492 to
Present. Review: Consistently lauded
for its lively, readable prose, this revised and updated edition of A People's History
of the United States turns traditional textbook history on its head. Howard Zinn infuses the often-submerged voices
of blacks, women, American Indians, war resisters, and poor laborers of all nationalities into this thorough narrative that
spans American history from Christopher Columbus's arrival to an afterword on the Clinton
presidency. Continued below…
Addressing
his trademark reversals of perspective, Zinn--a teacher, historian, and social activist for more than 20 years—explains:
"My point is not that we must, in telling history, accuse, judge, condemn Columbus in absentia. It is too late for that; it would
be a useless scholarly exercise in morality. But the easy acceptance of atrocities as a deplorable but necessary price to
pay for progress (Hiroshima and Vietnam,
to save Western civilization; Kronstadt and Hungary,
to save socialism; nuclear proliferation, to save us all)--that is still with us. One reason these atrocities are still with
us is that we have learned to bury them in a mass of other facts, as radioactive wastes are buried in containers in the earth."
If your last experience of American history was brought
to you by junior high school textbooks--or even if you're a specialist--get ready for the other side of stories you may not
even have heard. With its vivid descriptions of rarely noted events, A People's History of the United
States is required reading for anyone who wants to take a fresh look at the rich, rocky history of America. "Thought-provoking,
controversial, and never dull..."
Recommended Reading: American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies
at the Founding of the Republic (Hardcover). Review: From the prizewinning author of the best-selling Founding Brothers
and American Sphinx, a masterly and highly ironic examination of the founding
years of our country. The last quarter of the eighteenth century remains the most politically creative era in American history,
when a dedicated and determined group of men undertook a bold experiment in political ideals. It was a time of triumphs; yet,
as Joseph J. Ellis makes clear, it was also a time of tragedies—all of which contributed to the shaping of our burgeoning
nation. Continued below...
From the first
shots fired at Lexington to the signing of the Declaration of Independence to the negotiations for the Louisiana Purchase,
Ellis guides us through the decisive issues of the nation’s founding, and illuminates the emerging philosophies, shifting
alliances, and personal and political foibles of our now iconic leaders—Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, and
Adams. He casts an incisive eye on the founders’ achievements, arguing that the American Revolution was, paradoxically,
an evolution—and that part of what made it so extraordinary was the gradual pace at which it occurred. He shows us why
the fact that it was brought about by a group, rather than by a single individual, distinguished it from the bloodier revolutions
of other countries, and ultimately played a key role in determining its success. He explains how the idea of a strong federal
government, championed by Washington, was eventually embraced by the American people, the majority of whom had to be won over,
as they feared an absolute power reminiscent of the British Empire. And he details the emergence of the two-party system—then
a political novelty—which today stands as the founders’ most enduring legacy. But Ellis is equally incisive about
their failures, and he makes clear how their inability to abolish slavery and to reach a just settlement with the Native Americans
has played an equally important role in shaping our national character. He demonstrates how these misjudgments, now so abundantly
evident, were not necessarily inevitable. We learn of the negotiations between Henry Knox and Alexander McGillivray, the most
talented Indian statesman of his time, which began in good faith and ended in disaster. And we come to understand how a political
solution to slavery required the kind of robust federal power that the Jeffersonians viewed as a betrayal of their most deeply
held principles. With eloquence and insight, Ellis strips the mythic veneer of the revolutionary generation to reveal men
both human and inspired, possessed of both brilliance and blindness. American Creation is a book that delineates an era of
flawed greatness, at a time when understanding our origins is more important than ever. About the Author: Joseph J. Ellis received the Pulitzer
Prize for Founding Brothers and the National Book
Award for his portrait of Thomas Jefferson, American Sphinx. He is the Ford Foundation Professor of History at Mount
Holyoke College. He lives in
Amherst, Massachusetts, with
his wife, Ellen, and their youngest son, Alex.
Recommended Viewing: 500 Nations (372 minutes). Description:
500 Nations is an eight-part documentary (more than 6 hours and that's not including its interactive CD-ROM filled with extra
features) that explores the history of the indigenous peoples of North and Central America, from pre-Colombian times
through the period of European contact and colonization, to the end of the 19th century and the subjugation of the Plains
Indians of North America. 500 Nations utilizes historical texts, eyewitness
accounts, pictorial sources and computer graphic reconstructions to explore the magnificent civilizations which flourished
prior to contact with Western civilization, and to tell the dramatic and tragic story of the Native American nations' desperate
attempts to retain their way of life against overwhelming odds. Continued below...
Mention the
word "Indian," and most will conjure up images inspired by myths and movies: teepees, headdresses, and war paint; Sitting
Bull, Geronimo, Crazy Horse, and their battles (like Little Big Horn) with the U.S. Cavalry. Those stories of the so-called
"horse nations" of the Great
Plains are all here, but so is a great deal more. Using impressive computer imaging, photos, location film footage
and breathtaking cinematography, interviews with present-day Indians, books and manuscripts, museum artifacts, and more, Leustig
and his crew go back more than a millennium to present an fascinating account of Indians, including those (like the Maya and
Aztecs in Mexico and the Anasazi in the Southwest) who were here long before white men ever reached these shores. It was the
arrival of Europeans like Columbus, Cortez, and DeSoto that marked the beginning of the end for the Indians. Considering the
participation of host Kevin Costner, whose film Dances with Wolves was highly sympathetic to the Indians, it's no bulletin
that 500 Nations also takes a compassionate view of the multitude of calamities--from alcohol and disease to the corruption
of their culture and the depletion of their vast natural resources--visited on them by the white man in his quest for land
and money, eventually leading to such horrific events as the Trail of Tears "forced march," the massacre at Wounded Knee,
and other consequences of the effort to "relocate" Indians to the reservations where many of them still live. Along the way,
we learn about the Indians' participation in such events as the American Revolution and the War of 1812, as well as popular
legends like the first Thanksgiving (it really happened) and the rescue of Captain John Smith by Pocahontas (it probably didn't).
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